Islamic Scholars

He was born on 1 Ramadan 732 (May 27, 1332) in Tunisia. Since he was originally from the Hadhramaut region of Yemen, he used the name Hadrami in Muḳaddimah, Tunisî because he was born in Tunisia, and Moorish nisbah because he spent most of his life in North Africa. Ibn Hazm gave his genealogy (Jamrah, p. 430), and he himself narrated it in his work at-Taʿrīf (p. 1), but he doubted it and stated that it had shortcomings.

Ibn Khaldun's ancestor, the chief of the tribe to which he belonged, was Wa'il b. Hujr went to Medina with a delegation and visited the Prophet and received the prayer of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him), “O Allah, bless the Wa'il and his descendants!” and Mu'awiyah ibn Abu Sufyan was sent with him on his way back to his country. Wa'il narrated about seventy hadiths from the Prophet (at-Taʿrīf, p. 2; Ibn 'Abd al-Bar, III, 605; Ibn Hajar, al-Iṣāba, III, 592). The descendants of the Governor came here during the conquest of Andalusia and settled in the city of Carmona. The first person from this family to come to Andalusia was Khalid b. Uthman b. Hani. The name of Khalid, also known as Khalid ad-Dâlâlî, began to be pronounced as “Khaldûn” as a term of respect, as was the custom in Andalusia, and his descendants were known as Banî Khaldûn. The Haldûnoğulları, who resided in Karmûne for a while, were later recognized as a respected family in İşbîliye (Seville), where they settled, and played an important role in the political and scientific field in Andalusia and North Africa. The historian Ibn Hayyān al-Qurtubī pointed to the fame of this family in the field of politics and science (at-Taʿrīf, p. 5).

During the turmoil during the reign of Amir Abdullah (888-912), one of the Umayyad rulers of Andalusia, Bani Khaldun, along with Bani Abu Abde and Bani Hajjaj, one of the leading families of Ishbîliya, rebelled and these three families took over the administration in Ishbîliya. Meanwhile, at the head of Bani Khaldun, Qurayb b. Uthman and his brother Khalid were present. It is said that Qurayb, who rebelled at the beginning of the Xth century, Ibrahim b. His murder by Hajjaj diminished the influence of Bani Khaldun in political life. In the Battle of Zellaka (Sagrajas) (1086), in which Ibn 'Abbâd Mu'tamid-Alellah and his ally Yûsuf ibn Tâşfîn defeated King Alfonso VI of Castile (Castilla), Bani Khaldûn joined them, and after this event, his reputation in the political sphere began to rise again. The members of Bani Khaldun were appointed to important positions by Ibn Abbâd Mu'tamid-Alellah, who ruled Ishbîliya. When the Muwahhids, who had eliminated the Murâbids, captured al-Andalus, they appointed Abu Hafs al-Hintâtî, who had supported them, as governor of Ishbîliya. After Abu Hafs, this task was carried out by his son Abd al-Wahid and his grandson Abu Zakariyya. Ibn al-Muhtasib, the ancestor of Bani Khaldûn on his mother's side, was a friend of the governor Abu Zakariyya. When Abu Zakariyya crossed over to Ifrîqiyah and declared his independence from the Muwahhids (625/1228), when the king of Castile began to occupy the cities held by the Muslims, Bani Khaldûn, who was looking for a safe place, settled in Tunis, the center of the Hafsids. Abu Bakr Muhammad, one of Ibn Khaldun's ancestors, was appointed as a treasurer during the reign of the Hafsid Emir Abu Ishaq I (1279-1282). However, he was executed by Ibn Abu Umara, who invaded Tunisia.

Ibn Khaldun's grandfather, Muhammad, rose to the position of hajib in Bijaye (Bougie), then withdrew from political life and devoted himself to worship. His father, Muhammad, did not enter politics but was engaged in science, education and training. Ibn Khaldun received the first information from his father, then Muhammad b. Sa'd b. He continued the lessons of Burrâl al-Ansârî. He memorized the Qur'an and learned the science of recitation. Muhammad b. Arabi al-Hashayiri, Muhammad b. Shawwash az-Zarzali, Ahmad b. Kassar, Muhammad b. Bahr, Muhammad b. He took lessons in Arabic language and literature from scholars such as Jabir al-Wadîâşî. He memorized poems by poems such as Abu Tammām and Mutānābī, as well as some of the poems in al-Eġānī. He also read from Vādīāşī Ṣaḥîḥ-i Muslim and al-Muwaṭṭaʾ and parts of other books of the Qutb-i Sitta. Muhammad b. He studied fiqh from such scholars as Abdullah al-Jayyani, Ibn Abd al-Salaam al-Hawwari, and Muhammad al-Qasîr.

The political and social environment in which he grew up is of great importance in terms of the formation of Ibn Khaldun's scientific personality. In his time, the Hafsids ruled in Tunisia, the Merinids in Morocco, the Abd al-Wads in Tilimsân, the Nasris (Bani Ahmar) in Andalusia, and the Mamluks in Egypt. The states in North Africa and Andalusia were both struggling with each other and often fighting for the throne among themselves. When Ibn Khaldun was sixteen years old, the Merinid ruler Sultan Abu'l-Hasan invaded Tunisia. He brought with him some of the scholars who had to migrate from Andalusia to Morocco to Tunisia (748/1347). Muhammad b. Ibn Khaldûn, who benefited from scholars such as Sulayman as-Sattî, Ahmad az-Zawâwî, Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Âbilî, Abu'l-Kāsim Ibn Ridwān, Abu Muhammad Abd al-Muhaymin al-Hadramî, took hadith and siyer from Abd al-Muhaymin, recitation from Zawâwî, fiqh from Sattî, fiqh from Âbilî, theology, logic, philosophy and mathematics. He learned the method of Fahreddin er-Râzî in the science of theology.

Ibn Khaldun lost some of his parents and teachers in the plague epidemic of 749 (1348). Meanwhile, Sultan Abu'l-Hasan, who had invaded Tunisia, was forced to return to Morocco. The scholars he brought with him returned to Morocco with him. Ibn Khaldun, who decided to go to Morocco with his teachers and continue his education there, was dissuaded by his brother Muhammad. After Sultan Abu'l-Hasan left Tunisia, the Hafsids regained power in Tunisia. The Vizier Ibn Tâfrâgîn, who took the Hafsid Sultan Abu Ishaq II under his tutelage and gathered all the powers in his hands, appointed Ibn Khaldûn as the “sign clerk” of the sultan.

When Ibn Umara, the Constantine Emir of the Hafsids, marched on Tunis, the sultan's army was defeated in the battle of Merre-Mâcenna (754/1353). Ibn Khaldun, who had participated in the war, fled to Biskre. After spending the winter here, he went to Tilimsan. In Tilimsân, he met with the Merinid Sultan Abu Inân and his vizier Hasan ibn 'Umar, who had removed his father Abu'l-Hasan from the throne and succeeded him. He spent the winter in Bijaya, where he came with the vizier, and went to Morocco, the capital of the Merinids, in 755 (1354) upon the invitation of Abu Inân. The sultan, who paid close attention to him, included him among the scholars who formed the council of knowledge. A year later, he was appointed as a clerk and sealer. During this time, Ibn Khaldun worked in libraries in Morocco. He expanded his knowledge by taking advantage of the scholars who migrated here from Andalusia. Muhammad b. Muhammad al-Makkarī, Ibn al-Hāj al-Billifīkī, Abū Abdallah al-Alawi, Abu'l-Kāsim Muhammad b. Yahya al-Barji, Muhammad b. Abd al-Razzaq was one of the teachers he benefited from in Morocco.

Ibn Khaldun considered the task given to him by the sultan to be inferior to the duties of his family before. He did not hesitate to participate in a conspiracy against Sultan Abu Inân in order to reach higher positions. When Abu Inân captured Bijaya, he captured Abu Abdullah Muhammad, the Hafsid Emir of the place, and brought him to Morocco. Ibn Khaldun agreed with Abu Abdullah that if he became the emir of Bijaya again, he would work for his release from captivity in exchange for being given the task of hajib. When the Sultan learned of this situation, he imprisoned both of them (758/1357). Emir Abu Abdullah Muhammad was released after a while, but Ibn Khaldun remained in prison for two years. Although he wrote odes to the sultan for forgiveness, he did not receive attention. Upon the death of Sultan Abu Inān (759/1358), his vizier Hasan b. Umar released Ibn Khaldūn along with the other details and reinstated him to his former position, bestowing on him, but not allowing him to return to his country (at-Taʿrīf, p. 68).

Hasan b. Umar concentrated all the powers in his hands. When the notables of the Merinids rebelled against the vizier, Ibn Khaldûn supported this movement. He started activities in favor of Abu Sâlim, the brother of Abu Inân, who fled to Andalusia during the struggles for the throne. When Abu Sâlim became the sultan of Merinid in 760 (1359), Ibn Khaldûn's reputation increased and he was appointed secret clerk. Ibn Khaldun, who undertook the task of writing official writings on behalf of the Sultan, made an effort to simplify the language of official writings while carrying out these duties. He paid more attention to writing poetry. Two years later, he was appointed as a judge (ibid., p. 77).

Wazir Umar b. At the end of the revolt that started in 762 (1361) under the leadership of Abdullah, Sultan Abu Sâlim was killed and Tâşfîn was placed on the throne. Ibn Khaldûn, who managed to stay in office during this period, had his eyes on higher positions. When his efforts in this regard did not yield any results, he fell out with the vizier and resigned from his post. He decided to go to Abu Hammû, the ruler of the 'Abd al-Wadids, who had recaptured Tilimsân and its environs from the Merinids, but Umar b. Abdullah prevented this. However, the vizier Mas'ud b. When, at the request of Rahhû, he was allowed to leave Morocco on the condition that he would not go to Tilimsân, he decided to go to Andalusia and reached Granada on 8 Rabî al-Awwal 764 (26 December 1362). When the famous author Lisânüddin Ibn al-Khatib, the vizier of the Nasrid Ruler Muhammad, was in exile in Morocco, Ibn Khaldûn helped him, and friendly relations were established between them. In this way, Ibn Khaldun was held in high esteem. The Sultan sent him to Ishbîliye (765/1364) to negotiate with King Pedro the Cruel of Castile and to improve political relations. He turned down Pedro's offer that if he stayed in Ishbîliye, he would give him his ancestors' old estate there. His success in this mission further increased his reputation in the eyes of the sultan (ibid., p. 85). Ibn Khaldûn, who took his family with him, lived in prosperity in Granada for a while, but soon fell out with the Vizier Ibn al-Khatib. This situation caused the sultan to distance himself from him. While he was thinking of leaving Andalusia, he learned that Abu Abdullah Muhammad, the former Hafsid emir of Bijaya, with whom he had stayed in prison for a while, had recaptured Bijaya and made his brother Abu Zakariyya Ibn Khaldun his vizier. After a while, he received an offer of pilgrimage from the Emir of Bijaya. Ibn Khaldun, who went to Bijaya in 766 (1365) with the permission of the Nasri sultan, was welcomed with a brilliant ceremony. As the most authoritative person, he began to govern the state. On the other hand, he continued to work as an orator and lecturer.

Meanwhile, a dispute between Emir Abu Abdullah and his uncle's son, Abu'l-Abbas Ahmad, the Emir of Constantine, resulted in a war, and Abu Abdullah was killed (767/1366). When Abu'l-Abbas began to march on Bijaya, the statesmen proposed to Ibn Khaldun that one of the children of Amir Abu Abdullah be proclaimed sultan and that Bijaya be defended. However, Ibn Khaldun, who did not want to accept this offer, handed over the city to Abu'l-Abbas and did not see any harm in entering his service. The Sultan rewarded him by leaving him in his post. But she soon began to suspect him. Noticing that the Sultan's attitude towards him had changed, Ibn Khaldûn took permission and left Bijaya. In the meantime, the sultan ordered his arrest in a sudden decision, and when he could not get him arrested, he imprisoned his brother Abu Zakariyya Yahyâ in Bûne (Bone). After wandering among some Arab tribes for a while, Ibn Khaldun came to Biskre and settled there. In Biskre, where he stayed for six years, he got to know the nomadic tribes closely. Since he was adept at securing the political support of the tribes, the emirs and sultans tried to take advantage of his ability during this period. Although Ibn Khaldûn received an offer of pilgrimage from Abu Hammû, the Sultan of Tilimsân, during these years, he did not accept it. But he had to carry out the task of providing support to the sultan among the tribes. Later, the Merinid Sultan Abu Faris 'Abd al-'Azeez b. He received news that Abu'l-Hasan was preparing to march on Tilimsan. When he realized that Abu Hammu would lose his throne, he obtained permission to go to Andalusia again. While he was in the port city of Hunayn, he was captured and brought before Sultan Abu Faris. Abu Fārīs strongly reproached him for abandoning the service of the Merinids and supporting their enemies. When Ibn Khaldun apologized to him and gave him useful information about the capture of Bijaya, the sultan released him. After this incident, Ibn Khaldun went to the tomb of the famous Sufi Abu Madyan in Ubbâd, near Tilimsân, and went into seclusion there. Shortly thereafter, Abu Fārīs captured Tilimsān and assigned him to carry out activities against Abu Hammū among the tribes. Ibn Khaldun also participated in a raid that resulted in a heavy defeat of Abu Hammu.

Ibn Khaldûn, who resided in Biskre for a while, went to Tilimsân and visited Sultan Abu Fâris and became a recipient of his bestowal. The Sultan gave him the task of subordinating some tribes to him. Although Ibn Khaldūn was not successful in this regard, he returned to Biskre after performing useful services in the campaign of the sultan's vizier, Ibn Gāzī, against the rebels. The Emir of Bishkra, Ahmad b. When he sensed that Yûsuf was preparing to revolt, he took his family with him and set out to go to Abu Fâris, the Sultan of Tilimsân. On the way, when he heard that the sultan had passed away and that his son Saîd had taken the throne, he decided to go to Morocco. He barely escaped with his life from the raid of the bandits instigated by Abu Hammû and reached Morocco with difficulty. The Vizier Ibn Gāzī, who had Sultan Sa'īd under his tutelage, received him well. He continued his scientific activities and lectured here for a while.

Ibn Khaldūn was arrested by the new administration, which did not trust him, after Sultan Sa'id and his vizier Ibn Gāzī were removed from office as a result of the turmoil in Morocco and Abu'l-Abbas Ahmad, the son of the former sultan Abū Sālim, ascended the throne (776/1374). When he was released, he realized that he could no longer be comfortable in Morocco and that he had nowhere else to go. Meanwhile, his attempts to save Lisanuddin Ibn al-Khatib from execution did not yield any results. Leaving his family in Morocco, he went to Andalusia in 1374. The Moroccan government asked the Nasri sultan to send him back, as they were worried that he would plot against them in Andalusia. The Sultan complied with this request and expelled Ibn Khaldun from his country. Ibn Khaldûn, who stayed in the port city of Hunayn for a while, asked Sultan Abu Hammû through some intermediaries to return to Tilimsân. When the Sultan accepted his request, he went to Tilimsân with his family on 1 Shawwal 776 (5 March 1375). Here he decided to dedicate himself to science and teaching. However, Abu Hammû soon commissioned him to settle the disputes that had arisen between some of the tribes. Ibn Khaldûn, who reluctantly accepted this task, changed his mind on the way and went to the Bani Arîf tribe. The elders of the tribe obtained permission from Abu Hammû to remain among them and to be sent with his family. Ibn Khaldûn, who settled in the Castle of Ibn Salamah in the town of Bani Tûjîn, lived a quiet life there for four years and began to write his history called al-ʿIbar. He completed the manuscripts of al-ʿIbar's famous Muḳaddimah in 779 (1377) (p. 1365; at-Taʿrīf, p. 229). He then proceeded to write the Arab, Berber, and Zenāte part of al-ʿIbar. Since he needed source works for his book, he went to Tunisia in 780 (1378) with the permission of Sultan Abu'l-Abbas. While continuing his scientific studies under the auspices of the Sultan, he also taught. He completed al-ʿIbar and dedicated it to the sultan. This copy of the work, known as the “Tunisian copy”, contains the Muḳaddimah and the chapter on the Arab and Berber dynasties in North Africa, and the Arab history before and after Islam.

Ibn Khaldun, who lived a quiet life in Tunisia and taught the students gathered around him, faced fierce opposition from the grand mufti Ibn Arafa. In 783 (1381) he reluctantly joined the sultan's expedition against Ibn Yemlûl. The following year, Ibn Khaldun, who calculated that he would have to participate in the expedition of the sultan, said that he wanted to go on a pilgrimage and received permission from the sultan to leave Tunisia. He reached Alexandria on the feast of Ramadan (1-3 Shawwal 784 / 8-10 December 1382). After a while, he decided to abandon the pilgrimage and go to Cairo. Ibn Khaldun, who arrived in Cairo shortly after the accession of the Mamluk Sultan al-Maliku'z-Zâhir Berkuk to the throne, was well received here. Many students gathered around him, and his lectures at the Azhar Mosque attracted great attention (at-Taʿrīf, p. 248). Historians such as Makrîzî, Ibn Taghrîbardî and Sahâwî record that Ibn Khaldûn was admired for his extensive knowledge and effective oratory. Ibn Khaldun, who was patronized by Altunboğa al-Jubânî and established good relations with Sultan Berkuk, ensured that his family left Tunisia. After a while, he was appointed as the mudarris of the Kamhiyye Madrasa. Many scholars and statesmen were also present at his first lecture here. Sultan Berkuk, Mālikī Qādılqudāt Jamāl al-Din Abd al-Rahman b. He dismissed Suleiman and appointed Ibn Khaldun in his place on 19 Jamâzi al-Âhir 786 (8 August 1384) and gave him the title of “Waliyyüddin”. Ibn Khaldun, who took office with a ceremony held in the Sâlihiyye Madrasah, successfully carried out his duty. This situation caused him to be criticized by some important people whose interests were harmed. A few months later, he learned that the ship he was on, including his family, had sunk near Alexandria. In the meantime, he was dismissed from his position as a qadi and appointed as the headmaster of the Zâhiriyye-Berkūqiyye Madrasah.

Ibn Khaldûn, who returned to Cairo after performing his pilgrimage in 789 (1387), was appointed as the mudarris of the Sargatmişıyya Madrasa in Muharram 791 (January 1389). Here he gave hadith lectures. Three months later, he was appointed as the head of the Baibars Khankah, which was built by Sultan Baibars. In the same year, when the governor of Aleppo, Yelboğa an-Nâsirî, removed Sultan Berkuk from the throne, all his duties came to an end. However, when Sultan Berkuk returned to the throne a short time later, he reinstated him to his former duties. However, since he had signed the fatwa issued for the dismissal of Sultan Berkuk, he was dismissed from the presidency of the Baibars Khankah (ibid., p. 330). Thereupon, Ibn Khaldun, who won the heart of the sultan by writing an ode, was appointed as the chief minister of Maliki on 15 Ramadan 801 (21 May 1399). In the same year, Sultan Berkuk's son al-Maliku'n-Nasir Faraj, who succeeded him, asked him to continue his duties. Ibn Khaldun, who participated in the Sultan's expedition to Syria in 1400, visited Jerusalem, Bethlehem and the tomb of Prophet Abraham on his return from the expedition. Shortly after returning to Cairo and continuing his duties as qadi, he was dismissed from this position (15 Muharram 803 / 5 September 1400).

When the news reached Cairo that Timur had attacked Syria, captured Aleppo and marched on Dimashk, Sultan Faraj came to Dimash with his army; Ibn Khaldun was also with him. At a time when small skirmishes were taking place between the two armies, the sultan returned to Egypt when he received news of an attempted uprising in Cairo. While the governor of Dimash did not accept the offer of the ulema to surrender the city to Timur through peace and continued to defend the city, Ibn Khaldûn, in consultation with the ulema, secretly went to the camp to meet with Timur. He taught Timur about North Africa and the theory of irritability. At his request, he also provided this information to him in writing (803/1401). During this meeting, he praised Timur at length and said that he was the great haka from whom the priests and ascetics were waiting (ibid., pp. 370-373; Ibn Arabshah, pp. 353-356).

While in Egypt, Ibn Khaldûn continued his work on al-ʿIbar. By adding the histories of the tribes and dynasties in the East, he made the work a general history. He made some additions and corrections to his first book, known as the Muḳaddimah. He added his autobiography, which he edited under the title “at-Taʿrīf bi'bni Ḫaldûn muʾellifi hāẕe'l-kitāb”, at the end of al-ʿIbar, and sent the final copy to the Library of Jamiu'l-Qarawiyyīn in Morocco to be dedicated to Sultan Abu Fāris Abd al-Azīz b. He sent it to Abu'l-Hasan. This copy, which differs from the Tunisian copy of al-ʿIbar and Muḳaddimah, is known as “an-nüshatü'l-Fārisiyya”. Ibn Khaldun was appointed to the office of qadi four more times between 803-808 (1401-1406). While carrying out this duty, he died on 26 Ramadan 808 (17 March 1406) and was buried in the Sufiye Cemetery opposite Bâbünnasr. Today, the exact location of his grave is unknown.

Ibn Khaldun, who spent the first twenty years of his life in Tunisia, twenty-six years in Algeria, Morocco and Andalusia, four years in Tunisia and the last twenty-four years in Cairo, received a good education, was interested in scientific and intellectual life from a young age, but could not get rid of the charm of politics. His ambition to be at the highest levels of the state led to his persecution, exile and imprisonment. Although he had some troubled periods, he generally led a prosperous and respectable life in palaces and mansions. In the administration of the Merînî, Hafsî and Abdülvâdî dynasties, he was sometimes as influential as the sultan and the emirs, played an important role in the change of powers, and with this feature, he became a person whose support was needed and whose opposition was feared. On the other hand, he often wandered among the tribes and got to know the Bedouin tribal life closely, and whenever he had the opportunity, he was engaged in science and teaching. He wrote his famous Muḳaddimah with such knowledge and experience.

Andalusian and North African authors such as Ibn al-Khatib, Ibn al-Ahmar, Ahmad Bābā at-Tinbuktī and Ibn al-Kādī praised Ibn Khaldūn and drew attention to his extensive knowledge in the field of science and literature. Egyptian and Eastern scholars such as Jamal al-Din al-Beşbîşî, Ibn Hajar al-Askalânî, Nur al-Din al-Haythamî, Shams al-Din al-Rakrakî, Badreddin al-Ayni, and Sahâwî generally appreciated him, but pointed out some of his weaknesses and emotional behaviors. The fact that he walked around Egypt in a Maghrib dress, that he behaved humbly when he was dismissed, that he did not recognize anyone when he took office, that he did not hesitate to engage in activities that would harm his friends and benefactors in order to protect his interests and position, that he signed the fatwa prepared by the ulema for the dismissal of Sultan Berkuk during the rebellion of the regent of Aleppo, Yelboğa an-Nâsirî, that the Fatimids said that they were descendants of Hazrat Husayn, that he issued a false document against Shamseddin er-Rakrakî, etc. Mentioned. Ibn Arafa, the Qadi of Tunisia, claimed that his knowledge of fiqh was considered insufficient, Ibn Hajar al-Haytemi claimed that he considered the murder of Hazrat Husayn legitimate, and Shamseddin al-Rakraqi claimed that he did not know the Shari'i sciences, that he was at an intermediate level in mental sciences, and that his oratory and conversation were extraordinary. Bihishtî, who took what was said against Ibn Khaldûn in his Kitâb al-Ḳuḍât, states that he was accused of many things, but most of them have no originals (Abdurrahman Badawi, pp. 328-330). Ibrahim al-Baghuni, Muhammad b. Ammār al-Kāhirī al-Mālikī, Abū Hāmid Ibn Zahīrah, and his disciple Makrīzī Ibn Khaldūn praised him, especially pointing out the importance of his views on Muḳaddimah. Appreciating Ibn Khaldun's information on North Africa in al-ʿIbar, Aynî points out that he did not know the Eastern Islamic world well (ibid., p. 335). Ibn Hajar al-Askalânî, who is considered a student of Ibn Khaldûn in a way, finds Makrîzî's praise of him exaggerated, saying that his master made word games like Jahiz and was known for his eloquence (ibid., p. 331). Agreeing with this assessment of Ibn Hajar, Sahâwî especially praises Ibn Khaldûn's historiography.

His contemporary scholars such as Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani and Badreddin al-Ayni were not aware of Ibn Khaldun's original views on history, society and the state while describing him, and authors other than Makrîzî saw him as an ordinary historian. Egyptian historians such as Makrîzî, Ibn Taghrîbardî and Kalkasendî praised Ibn Khaldûn and benefited from his works. As Makrîzî says, despite his virtue, nobility and honor, Ibn Khaldûn was never lacking in enemies, opponents and opponents (ibid., p. 334). In the name of Ibn Khaldûn, who had a profound impact on the next generations with his unique ideas and methods, a cultural society called al-Cem'iyyat al-Haldûniyya was established in Tunisia on December 22, 1896.

Works. 1. Lubāb al-Muḥaṣṣal fī uṣûli'd-dīn. The work, completed by Ibn Khaldûn in Safer 752 (April 1351), is an abbreviated form of Fakhr al-Din al-Rāzī's al-Muḥaṣṣal and consists of four chapters, badîhiyyât, ma'lûmât, ilâhiyyât and sem'iyyât, and a hatima. The author states that while abbreviating al-Muḥaṣṣal, he adhered to the text, and that he made some additions to the text by making use of the commentary called Telḫîṣü'l-Muḥaṣṣal written by Nasîrüddîn-i Tûsî on this work, and that he added very little of himself. It is noteworthy in that it is a work written by Lubāb al-muḥaṣṣal Ibn Khaldūn at a young age under the influence of his teacher Ābilī (Muhammad Abdullah Inān, pp. 150-153; Abdurrahman Badawi, pp. 33-38). The work, a copy of which is in the Escurial Library in Spain (no. 1614), was published by Luciano Rubio and translated into Spanish (Tetouan 1952), as well as published by Rafiq al-Acem (Beirut 1995) and Abbas MH Suleiman (Alexandria 1996).

2. Shifāʾü's-sāʾil li-tehẕîbi'l-masāʾil. There is no information about this book in the works of his contemporary Ibn al-Khatib or Ibn Khaldûn. Some North African authors, such as Shaykh Zarrūk, Abd al-Qādir al-Fāsī, and Abū 'Abdallah al-Misnāwī, have claimed that he had a work with that name, while Ali 'Abd al-Wafī (Muḳaddimah, introduction to the edition, I, 152) and M. Abd al-Ghānī Hasan (Majelle [May 1961], pp. 66-67) suggested that the Shifāʾ al-sāʾil belonged to Ibn Khaldūn's father's uncle, Abd al-Rahman. Muhammad Abdullah Inan, Abd al-Rahman Badawi and Muhammad b. Contemporary researchers such as Tâvît at-Tanjî have argued that the work belongs to Ibn Khaldûn. It is accepted that Ibn Khaldûn wrote this work while he was in Morocco between 1372 and 1374, before Muḳaddimah. Ibrahim ash-Shatibi (b. 790/1388) sent a letter to Moroccan scholars asking whether it was necessary for a person who wanted to enter Sufism to be attached to a sheikh, and Ibn Khaldûn answered the question with this work. Muhammad b. Published by Tâvît et-Tancî (Istanbul 1957), he translated it into Turkish under the title Süleyman Uludağ The Nature of Sufism (Istanbul 1977).

3. Kitâbü'l-Iber (Kitâbü Tercemâni'l-Iber) and the Book of the People of the Arabs and the Persians and the Berbers, and the People of the Greatest,Ibn Khaldun's work, which serves as a world history, consists of seven volumes, each consisting of three books, a preface, and an introductory section, which he calls "introduction." In the introduction, the author touches upon the importance of history, the methods employed in writing history, the errors historians make, their unfounded opinions, and the reasons for these errors. He provides a comprehensive definition of history, revealing his own understanding of history. Ibn Khaldun stated that he founded a new and original branch of science, which he called "humanitarian science," that no one before him had conducted research in this field, and that he did not benefit from anyone else in establishing this science. He also provides sound information about his goal and the method he employed to achieve it. For this reason, researchers have placed particular value on this introduction. Ibn Khaldun's Muḳaddime his famous work known as al-IberIt consists of the first book of , along with this preface and introduction. It is one of the most original works in the history of Islamic and even world thought, which has brought Ibn Khaldun a well-deserved fame. MuḳaddimeIbn Khaldun did not give this name to . al-IberThe first volume of the , divided into six main parts, Muḳaddime It has been referred to as the "First Book of the Books". This first book has been copied many times separately from the other books. Muḳaddime It was first published by Nasr al-Hurini (Bulak 1274), and a three-volume critical edition was published by Etienne-Marc Quatremère (Paris 1858). The work has subsequently been reprinted many times and translated into various languages. al-IberThe second book of Ibn Khaldun covers the history of peoples and dynasties from the beginning to the time of Ibn Khaldun, primarily the Arabs, but also their neighbors such as the Nabateans, Assyrians, Persians, Jews, Ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Turks, and Franks. In this book, which comprises the second through fifth volumes of the work, Ibn Khaldun also briefly covers the history of the Prophet Muhammad, the Rashidun Caliphs, the Umayyads and Abbasids, and other Muslim dynasties in the Eastern Islamic world. Ibn Khaldun, al-IberWhile writing this section of the work, which is not considered particularly original, he largely relied on information provided by historians such as Tabari and Masudi. However, this section also contains some good analyses, reasonable explanations, and realistic interpretations. al-IberIbn Khaldun, who narrates the events not chronologically like Tabari, but according to their subjects and periods like Baladhuri and Masudi, narrates the historical events MuḳaddimeIt has been a matter of debate whether he interpreted the works in a critical manner and in accordance with the principles he laid out in his work, and whether he applied his theory of philosophy of history to his work. al-IberHis third book, a history of North Africa (the Maghreb) covering the history of the Berbers and Zenate peoples, comprises the sixth and seventh volumes of the work. In this section, Ibn Khaldun provides invaluable information about the history of the Maghreb, a topic that Eastern Islamic historians, due to their lack of knowledge, have neglected to include sufficiently in their works. Furthermore, much of this information is based on his personal observations, oral traditions, and some documents that have not survived to the present day. Ibn Khaldun, al-IberHe added his own biography to the last volume of his work under the title "et-Taʿrîf bi'bni Ḫaldûn müʾellifi hâẕe'l-kitâb". Initially, he wrote this section, which covers the period up to the year 797 (1395). al-IberIbn Khaldun, who considered it an addendum to (this section was published in 1284 [1867]) al-IberIn the addendum of , in 1322 [1904] Muḳaddime) later took up the work again and wrote about the period until 807 (1405) of his life. Since Ibn Khaldun considered the "at-Ta'rif" in its final form as a separate book, At-Taʿrîf bi'bni Ḫaldûn author of the book and riḥletühû Sharben and Sharḳen He named it as follows. This expanded version of the work was published by Tancî (Cairo 1951). After the 11th (17th) century, the name of the work was used in some sources and catalogues (for example, see Brockelmann, GAL Suppl., II, 342) Riḥletü İbn Ḫaldûn This situation has led to the misunderstanding that Ibn Khaldun had a separate work with this name. According to Tanci, who published the work critically, Ibn Khaldun At-TaʿrîfHe wrote the book in Tunisia and added to it later. Bedouin is of the opinion that the book was written in two stages in Cairo (Author of Ibn Khaldun, p. 74). Ibn Khaldun states that he completed the form before the addition he made later in Egypt in 797 (1395) (At-Taʿrîf, p. 278) shows that the work was written in Cairo. Ibn Khaldun, At-TaʿrîfIn it, he not only provided information about his own life but also provided extensive information about the social, political, historical, literary, and cultural activities he witnessed or participated in. He also provided information about the dynasties in which he served, the state order, and palace life. Muḳaddimeilluminating the theories in, al-IberIt complements the information in the . Some of the official correspondence, decrees, and letters exchanged between rulers contained in this work are historical documents. The letters Ibn Khaldun wrote to his friends, statesmen, scholars, poets, and literary figures, especially Lisan al-Din ibn al-Khatib, also contain valuable information about the social, political, and literary life of the time. Ibn Khaldun, who also aspired to poetry, included approximately 380 couplets in this work. The opening remarks, addresses, and first lessons he gave upon his appointment as a professor at the Kamhiyya, Zāhiriyya, and Sargatmışıyya madrasas provide insight into his prose and oratory skills.At-Taʿrîf, p. 280, 293). His correspondence with Ibn al-Khatib (age, pp. 82-155), the complimentary and praising letters written to him by the vizier of the Sultan of Granada, Ibn Zumrak, and the Judge of Granada, Abu'l-Hasan al-Binni, are important in that they provide information about the literature, artistic understanding and friendships of that period. Ibn Khaldun, At-TaʿrîfBecause he wrote "The Book of Revelation" over a long period of time, the work is occasionally repetitive. The author seems to have devoted little space to his impressions and feelings. He does not elaborate on how events affected him. For example, he confines himself to brief details about his two-year prison sentence, his mother, father, and teachers who died in the plague, and his family who drowned in a sinking ship. The information he provides about his marriages, children, and siblings is also very limited. He only touches upon his impressions and feelings in the sermon he delivered while serving as a judge in Egypt and in the section where he recounts his meeting with Timur. All of this suggests that he primarily included matters of pride in this work. At-Taʿrîf also, Ibn Khaldun MuḳaddimeIt is important because it helps understand the formation and nature of his views on history and society, which he discusses in his work. The work has also been seen as a kind of confession. In this work, Ibn Khaldun discusses some of his weaknesses and mistakes and attempts to justify them. At-Taʿrîf, translated into French by Baron Mac-Guckin de Slane (“Autobiographie d'Ibn Khaldun”, JA, III [1844], pp. 5-60, 187-210, 291-308, 325-353), also translated into English by Walter Joseph Fischel (“Ibn Khaldun's Autobiography in the Light of External Arabic Sources”, Studi orientalistici in honor di Giorgio Levi Della Vida, I [Rome 1956], pp. 287-308) translated. al-Iber'of Muḳaddime And At-Taʿrîf In addition to separate editions of its sections, the first edition of the whole was published in seven volumes in Egypt (Bulak 1284; Beirut 1399/1979). With the encouragement of Mehmed Ali Pasha, Abdüllatif Subhî Pasha al-IberHe started to translate the second and third books of the Quran into Turkish and completed the part up to the Sassanid dynasty in Iran. Miftāḥu'l-ʿIber He published it under the name (Istanbul 1276), and then wrote an addendum in two parts, which talked about the Seleucids and the Ashkanians and examined their coins. Tekmiletü'l-ʿIber (Istanbul 1278). This addendum was translated into Arabic by Khalil al-Huri (Beirut, nd.). al-IberVolumes VI and VII of the Maghreb history Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique septentrionale It was translated into French by Baron Mac-Guckin de Slane under the title Kitâbü Târîḫi'd-düveli'l-İslâmiyye bi'l-Maġrib It was published in two volumes with its Arabic text (Alger 1847-1851). The part of the section on the Nasrids that is not present in De Slane's translation was also translated by Maurice Gaudefroy-Demombynes (Histoire des Benoul Ahmar, rois de Grenade, Paris 1898), the work of Abdulmuhammed Ayetî el-ʿİber Târîḫ-i İbn-i Ḫaldûn He translated it into Persian and published it in four volumes (Tehran 1368).

In addition to these, Ibn al-Khatib says that Ibn Khaldûn had a book summarizing the works of Ibn Rushd, a treatise on logic that is said to have been written to present to the Merinid ruler Abu Inân or the Nasrid ruler Muhammad al-Ghani al-Billâh V, a book on calculus, a poem on the fiqh procedure of himself, and a commentary on Bûsîrî's Ḳaṣîdat al-burda (al-Iḥâṭa, III, 507-508). Kātib Chalabi also attributes a work called Sharḥu Ḳaṣīdī Ibn ʿAbdūn to him (Kashāfī'ẓ-ẓunûn, II, 228). Ibn Khaldūn says that at Timur's request, he wrote a twelve-page treatise briefly introducing the countries of North Africa, which was translated into the Mongol (Tatar) language (at-Taʿrīf, p. 370; Abd al-Rahman Badawi, pp. 286-287).

BIBLIOGRAPHYIbn Khaldūn, al-ʿIbar, VII, 379 ff.

a.mlf., Muḳaddimah (n. Ali Abd al-Wahid Wafi), Cairo 1951, loc.; also the introduction to the manuscript, I, 30-113, 123, 152; op. cit. (trc. F. Rosenthal), New York 1967, translator's introduction, I, pp. VII-XIV, XXII-LXVII.

a.mlf., at-Taʿrīf bi'bn Ḫaldūn (nsr Muhammad b. Tawīt at-Tanjī), Cairo 1951, pp. 1-2, 5, 21-22, 68, 77, 82-155, 229, 248, 278, 280, 293, 314, 330, 370-373; See also Type.Location.

Ibn Hazm, Jamrah, Cairo 1948, p. 430.

Ibn 'Abd al-Bar, al-Istīʿāb, III, 592, 605.

Ibn al-Khatib, al-Iḥāṭa, III, 497-516.

Ibn Hajar, Rafʿu'l-iṣr ʿan Ḳuḍāti Mīṣr (nsr Ali Muhammad Umar), Cairo 1418/1998, pp. 233-237.

ibid., al-Iṣāba, Cairo 1939, III, 592, 595.

ibid., Inbāʾ al-ġumr, V, 328-332.

Ibn 'Arabshah, ʿAjāʾibu'l-maḳdūr, Cairo 1868, pp. 353-356.

Sahawi, eḍ-Ḍavʾü'l-lāmiʿ, II, 145-149.

ibid., al-Iʿlān bi't-tawbiḫ, pp. 129-130, 177, 322.

Ibn al-Qādī, Jaẕwāt al-iḳtibās, Rabat 1393/1974, II, 410-413.

Ahmad Bābā at-Tinbuktī, Naylu'l-ibtihāj (in Ibn Farhūn, ad-Dībājī al-muẕheb), Cairo 1329-30, pp. 169-170.

Makkari, Nefḥu'ṭ-ṭīb, VI, 171-192.

Kashku'ẓ-ẓunûn, II, 228.

M. 'Abdallah Inan, Ibn Ḫaldūn: Ḥayātuhū wa turās̱ühü'l-fikrī, Cairo 1933.

Brockelmann, GAL, II, 314; Support., II, 342.

Walter Joseph Fischel, Ibn Khaldun and Tamerlane, Berkeley-Los Angeles 1952.

Aʿmāl mihrājāni Ibn Ḫaldūn, Cairo 1962.

Sāti' al-Husrī, Dirāsāt ʿan Muḳaddimī Ibn Ḫaldūn, Beirut 1967, p. 105.

Umit Hassan, Ibn Khaldun's Method and Political Theory, Ankara 1977, p. 95 ff.

Abd al-Rahman Badawi, Muʾellefatu Ibn Ḫaldûn, Tunisia 1979, pp. 5-74, 77-207, 216-257, 260-269, 286-287, 328-331, 334-335.

Abdulhak Adnan Adivar, “Ibn Khaldun”, IA, V/2, p. 738-743.

M. Talbī, “Ibn K̲h̲aldūn”, EI² (Fr.), III, 849-855.

Yûsuf Rahimlû, “Ibn Ḫaldûn”, DMBI, III, 441-458.

Franz Rosenthal, “Ebn Ḵaldūn”, EIr., VIII, 32-35.